In the first experiment, 80 undergrads were taught the concepts either using solely abstract symbols, or through one, two, or even three concrete examples.

The final sample size was n=127 reviewers. The authors do discuss the ethics of this slightly unusual experiment! It turned out that the statistically significant version of the abstract was given a ...

The subjects who saw the abstract example performed significantly better in the game than did those who learned the pattern with measuring cups. Jennifer Kaminski, ...